Solar cells. Construction, technology and application

Monographic comprehensive approach to issues related to the transformation of solar energy into electricity. Solar radiation is characterized, the principles of selecting the optimal angle of inclination of the receiver of this radiation are described, as well as photovoltaic conversion. Presented are the construction, characteristics and production technologies of photovoltaic cells as well as various configurations of photovoltaic systems supplying stationary objects. The issue of power supply of solar energy as well as legal, social, economic and standardization aspects concerning the use of solar cells were also discussed. In addition, methods of converting solar energy into thermal energy and examples of applications of thermal collectors in Poland and in the world are presented.
Recipients of the book: environmentalists and engineers dealing with renewable energy sources as well as students of higher education and postgraduate studies in the following specialties: energy, electrical engineering, physics, construction, transport ecology and environmental protection.

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Table of Contents:
Foreword 13
List of marks 20
List of abbreviations 22
1. Solar energy 25
1.1. Characteristics of the Sun 25
1.2. Radiation emitted from the surface of the Sun 26
1.3. Dependences describing the energy of the Sun 29
1.3.1. Relations between angles describing the position of the energy receiver relative to the Sun 29
1.3.2. Components of solar radiation 30
1.3.3. Models for determining the solar radiation flux density 35
1.4. Determination of the optimal angle of inclination of the solar radiation receiver due to the maximum energy 38
1.4.1. Discussion of optimization of the spatial orientation of the solar energy receiver due to the maximum energy gain 38
1.4.2. Optimization of the receiver setting based on computer simulation 45
1.4.3. Conditions and results of radiation power density measurements 50
1.4.4. Summary 54
1.5. Solar energy conversion methods 56
1.6. Advantages and disadvantages of solar energy 56
Literature to chapter 1 57
2. Thermal solar energy 60
2.1. Methods for converting solar energy into thermal energy 60
2.2. Collectors 60
2.2.1. General characteristics 60
2.2.2. Liquid collectors 61
2.2.2.1. Flat and pipe collectors 61
2.2.2.2. Collecting liquid collectors 64
2.2.3. Air and vacuum collectors 65
2.3. Solar thermal installations in the world 66
2.3.1. Thermal power plants 66
2.3.2. World potentates 67
2.3.3. Examples of thermal collector applications 69
2.4. Thermal solar energy in Poland 72
2.4.1. Distribution of total solar radiation 72
2.4.2. Possibilities of using solar energy for thermal purposes 75
2.4.3. Application examples 78
Literature to chapter 2 80
3. Conversion of solar energy into electricity 82
3.1. Internal solar phenomenon 82
3.1.1. Mechanism of the phenomenon 82
3.1.2. The emergence of the potential barrier 84
3.2. Calendar of events in the development of photovoltaic conversion 87
3.2.1. Antoine Cesar Becquerel and his discovery 87
3.2.2. Research on the photovoltaic phenomenon in the nineteenth century 88
3.2.3. Albert Einstein's theory 89
3.2.4. Jan Czochralski and his method 90
3.2.5. Further development of photovoltaic technology 95
3.2.6. Witold Żdanowicz - photovoltaic pioneer in Poland 97
3.2.7. Recent achievements 99
Literature to chapter 3 101
4. Materials, construction and exploitation of photovoltaic cells 103
4.1. Material and structural division of photovoltaic cells 103
4.2. Silicon cells 104
4.2.1. General characteristics of silicon 104
4.2.2. Micro and polycrystalline cells 106
4.2.3. Cells made of amorphous silicon 108
4.2.4. Thin-film crystalline cells 111
4.2.5. New solutions 112
4.2.5.1. PERL and RP-PERC 112 cells
4.2.5.2. Monocrystalline-amorphous network HIT 114
4.2.5.3. Thin-layer solutions sliver 115
4.2.5.4. Silicon cells Sphelar ± R 117
4.2.6. Properties of photovoltaic cells made of silicon in various technologies 118
4.3. Cells from cadmium telluride 118
4.3.1. General characteristics of cadmium telluride 118
4.3.2. Crystal and thin-film solutions 121
4.4. Cells from gallium arsenide 123
4.4.1. General characteristics of gallium arsenide 123
4.4.2. Crystal and thin-film structures 124
4.5. Indium-copper (CIS) discontinuation cells and their modifications (CIGS) 127
4.6. Modules with power of 200 Wp 130
4.7. Tandem 131 solar cells
4.8. Photovoltaic cells with nanotubes 132
4.9. Organic cells 133
4.9.1. General characteristics of cells 133
4.9.2. Selected planar solutions and 3D structures 134
4.9.3. The Grätzel pigment dye 135
4.9.4. New solutions 136
4.10. Photovoltaic and photothermal cell with combined conversion 137
4.11. Thermo-photovoltaic cell with infrared radiation conversion 138
4.12. Cells integrated with architecture 139
4.12.1. Characteristics of photovoltaic cells used in construction 139
4.12.2. Roof systems 141
4.12.3. Facade and transparent window modules 144
4.12.4. New BIPV solutions and well-known manufacturers 145
4.13. Cells cooperating with concentrators 148
4.13.1. Concentrators in the follow-up system 148
4.13.2. New solutions 151
Literature to chapter 4 152
5. Selected properties of photovoltaic cells 156
5.1. Absorption 156
5.2. Reflection 161
5.3. Stream of photons as a function of selected parameters of the cell 162
5.4. The photocurrent density of the emitter and base 164
5.5. Quantum yield 165
5.5.1. External and internal performance 165
5.5.2. The impact of recombination velocity on quantum yield 166
5.5.3. Effect of the average diffusion path on quantum yield 168
5.6. Spectral agent 169
5.7. Research on photovoltaic cells under conditions of radiation with different wavelengths in the visible spectrum 170
5.7.1. Test conditions and objects 170
5.7.2. Test results 172
5.7.3. Summary 172
Literature to chapter 5 176
6. Replacement scheme, parameters and characteristics of the solar cell 178
6.1. The equivalent cell diagram and its parameters 178
6.2. Current-voltage characteristics of photovoltaic cell 180
6.2.1. Determination of current-voltage relationships in the function of cell parameters 180
6.2.2. Simulation of the characteristics of selected cells as a function of insolation and temperature 182
6.2.3. Characteristic parameters of cells 182
6.3. Power characteristics and efficiency of photovoltaic cell 188
6.3.1. Influence of insolation and temperature on power 188
6.3.2. Influence of insolation and temperature on efficiency 190
6.3.3. Optimization of work as a result of shaping the load of the cell 191
6.4. Cooperation of a solar battery with a DC motor feeding the fan 193
6.4.1. Schematic diagram of the tested system 193
6.4.2. Mathematical model 194
6.4.3. Exemplary simulation results 197
6.5. Work of photovoltaic cells in various connection configurations 200
6.6. The effect of shading on the operation of the solar module 203
Literature to chapter 6 203
7. Production technology 206
7.1. Silicon cells 206
7.1.1. Silicon for the production of solar cells 206
7.1.2. Production of monocrystalline silicon blocks 210
7.1.2.1. Types of technology 210
7.1.2.2. The Czochralski Method 210
7.1.2.3. The zone melting method 213
7.1.3. Preparation of polycrystalline silicon blocks 214
7.1.3.1. Types of technology 214
7.1.3.2. Bridgman's method 215
7.1.3.3. Block casting method 215
7.1.4. Cutting silicon blocks on tiles 216
7.1.5. Further processing of silicon wafers 217
7.1.6. Connecting cells in modules 220
7.1.7. Manufacturing silicon strips 222
7.1.7.1. Review of silicon stripping methods 222
7.1.7.2. Production of WEB 223 tape
7.1.7.3. Edge feeding method 224
7.1.7.4. The ribbon to ribbon 225 method
7.1.7.5. The SOC 226 method
7.1.7.6. The ESR 226 process
7.1.7.7. RGS 227 method
7.1.8. Other technologies for silicon cells 228
7.1.8.1. Hydrogenated amorphous silicon 228
7.1.8.2. Flexible silicon system 228
7.1.8.3. Cells technology sliver 229
7.1.8.4. Sphelar ± R 230 cell technology
7.2. Thin film cells made in technology other than silicon 230
7.2.1 CdS / CdTe and CIGS 230
7.2.2. Thin-film cells GaAs 234
7.2.3. Self-cleaning technology for solar cells 236
Literature to chapter 7 236
8. Photovoltaic installations 240
8.1. Configurations of solar systems 240
8.2. Elements of photovoltaic installation 243
8.2.1. Introduction 243
8.2.2. Photovoltaic modules 245
8.2.3. Trackers 252
8.2.4. Batteries 253
8.2.5. Charge controllers 254
8.2.6. Inverters 257
8.2.7. Monitoring systems 262
8.2.8. Photovoltaic protection 263
8.2.9. Supporting structure and cables 264
8.3. The hybrid kit 268
8.4. Specification of energy demand. Efficiency and costs 269
8.5. Installation, service and maintenance of the solar installation 270
Literature to chapter 8 272
9. Areas and examples of photovoltaic cell applications 274
9.1. The current rate of development of photovoltaic installations and prospects 274
9.2. Solar cells in low-power devices 277
9.3. Autonomous systems 278
9.3.1. Overview of the application possibilities 278
9.3.2. Lighting supply 279
9.3.3. Ticket machines and parking meters 280
9.3.4. Lighthouses 282
9.3.5. Warning and signaling systems 285
9.4. Systems cooperating with the 286 network
9.4.1. Distributed systems BIPV 286
9.4.2. Centralized systems 290
9.5. Hybrid systems 294
9.6. Aerospace applications 298
Literature to chapter 9 299
10. Application of solar and infrared energy to power in means of transport 301
10.1. Solar cars 301
10.1.1. Power methods 301
10.1.2. Historic prototypes 302
10.1.3. Race cars and their construction and operating parameters 303
10.2. The most important aspects of solar vehicle design 310
10.2.1. Design strategy and traffic optimization 310
10.2.2. The power needed to overcome the resistance of driving 313
10.2.3. Power obtained by photovoltaic conversion 314
10.2.4. Supplementary power from the 316 battery
10.2.5. Materials and structural elements used in solar cars 319
10.3. Solar vehicle motion characteristics as a function of its parameters and external conditions 322
10.3.1. Influence of the construction and operation parameters of the solar car on its motion characteristics 322
10.3.2. Optimization of speed selection in a solar car with recharging of the battery while driving due to the maximum range of 325
10.3.3. Power balance of an electric vehicle powered by solar energy 329
10.3.4. Conclusions and remarks to computer simulations 336
10.3.5. "Hannibal" solar car 338
10.4. Conventional cars powered by solar energy 339
10.4.1. Electric cars 339
10.4.1.1. "Solar Bug" 339
10.4.1.2. Electric Jeep 339
10.4.2. Hybrid solutions 340
10.4.2.1. Automotive PV 340 panels
10.4.2.2. Connector 2001 341
10.4.2.3. Peugeot BB1 Concept 342
10.4.2.4. Fisker Karma 342
10.4.2.5. Other solutions 343
10.4.2.6. Solar Energy Station 344
10.5. Other means of transport powered by solar energy 345
10.5.1 Solar train 345
10.5.2. Planes powered by solar energy 345
10.5.2.1. NASA 345 works
10.5.2.2. Solar Challenger 345
10.5.2.3. Helios 345
10.5.2.4. Solar Impulse 347
10.5.2.5. Polish solar plane "Phoenix" 347
10.5.3. Solar powered floating units 348
10.5.3.1. Catamaran "Sun" 348
10.5.3.2. Water tram "Sunflower" 348
10.5.3.3. Passenger catamaran "Solar" 350
10.5.3.4. Solar boats Fiten Solar Team 352
10.5.3.5. Stages of designing boats powered by solar energy 353
Literature to chapter 10 354
11. Legal, social and economic issues, standardization, education and promotion, recycling 357
11.1. Legal and social issues 357
11.2. The cost of the PV 359 system
11.3. External costs 365
11.4. Normalization 365
11.5. Photovoltaic conversion in promotion and education 369
11.6. Recycling of solar modules 374
11.6.1. Recycling problems, costs, technologies 374
11.6.2. Pilot lines for the recovery and reuse of silicon modules 376
11.6.3. A method of recovery and re-use of modules from CdTe 379
Literature to chapter 11 380
12. Solar installation in Poland 382
12.1. Opportunities in the photovoltaic sector 382
12.2. Scientific and research works 384
12.2.1. Photovoltaic Laboratory of the Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Science of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Kozach 384
12.2.2. Works of the Institute of Electronic Materials Technology 390
12.2.3. Renewable Energy Laboratory in Sulechów 391
12.3. The largest solar investments in Poland 391
12.3.1. Introduction 391
12.3.2. PV installation Warsaw-Wawer 392
12.3.3. Photovoltaic installation at the Provincial Specialist Hospital dr. Władysław Biegański in Łódź 393
12.3.4. Photovoltaic installation at the frozen Frosta plant in Bydgoszcz 393
12.3.5. PV installation at Warsaw University of Technology 395
12.3.6. PV installation on the building of the Japanese Embassy in Warsaw 396
12.3.7. Photovoltaic installation in Polkowice 397
12.3.8. Photovoltaic installation in Rybnik 397
12.3.9. Photovoltaic installation in Rzeszów 397
12.3.10. Solar power plant in Wierzchosławice 398
03.12.11. Photovoltaic power plant project in Gryźliny near Olsztyn 398
12.03.12. Photovoltaic plant project on the hotel building of the Research Center of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Jabłonna 398
03.12.13. The largest photovoltaic roof installation in Poland 399
12.03.14. Photovoltaic power plant on the roof of the motel "Na Wierzynka" in Wieliczka 399
12.03.15. Photovoltaic panels at the "Ramka" hotel in Poznań 400
2.3.16. Photovoltaic wing - a project from Piła 400
12.4. Manufacturers of silicon and its alloys 400
12.4.1. Warsaw Scientific and Production Center of Electronic Materials Cemat Silicon 400
12.4.2. The European Silicon company in Katowice 401
12.5. Manufacturers of 401 modules
12.5.1. EKOpower21 Sp. z oo from Warsaw 401
12.5.2. Solar Energy modules production line in Bożepol Wielki 401
12.5.3. Vetro Polska 402
12.5.4. SELFA Photovoltaics from Szczecin 402
Literature to chapter 12 402
Material Index 404
Index of names 411